Fig. 1
From: The brain cytokine orchestra in multiple sclerosis: from neuroinflammation to synaptopathology
TNFα and IL-1β action at the glutammatergic synapse. Cytokines modulate synaptic function binding to their receptors presynaptically promoting ( +) the release of synaptic vesicles, and postsynaptically modulating receptors activity through phosphorylation. IL-1β is also known to promote astrocytic glutamate release enhancing ( +) the function of Xc− (cystine/glutamate antiporter), while impairing (−) the glutammate reuptake by EAAT2 (mod. form 28)