Fig. 1

Osteoarthritis (OA) induction by surgical DMM did not induce AD pathology in WT mice. A Timeline of surgical DMM and tissue collection in 6-month-old WT mice. B Representative images showing the sagittal, coronal, and axial views from the micro-CT scan of the subchondral bone acquired 2 months after surgical DMM. Spatial working memory tests in WT and TG mice. C Percentage of Y-maze alterations. D Total number of arm entries (n = 5 for the sham group, n = 10 for the OA group). E Representative images showing Iba-1 immunofluorescence staining in sham and surgical DMM-induced mouse brain tissues from WT mice. F Iba-1-positive cell count. G Area of Iba-1-positive cells in the cortical brain region (5 images/brain, n = 4). H iNOS and TNF-α mRNA expression in the hippocampus. Relative mRNA expression for iNOS (I) and TNF-α (J), respectively (n = 4/group). The band intensities of iNOS and TNF-α were normalized to GAPDH. Values are presented as mean ± SEM. Student’s t-test was used for statistical analyses. *P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant for the comparison between sham control and OA mice; ns, not significant