Fig. 2

Osteoarthritis (OA) induction by surgical DMM in AD transgenic (TG) mice. A Timeline of surgical DMM, behavior tests, and tissue collections. Spatial working memory tests in WT and TG mice. B Percentage of Y-maze alterations. C Total number of arm entries (n = 4/group). Student’s t-test was used for statistical analyses. D Average body weight at 4 months after DMM surgery (n = 4). E Representative images showing the coronal view of the subchondral bone in the micro-CT scan. F–H Inflammatory cytokine (IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6) mRNA expression in brain tissues was measured using real-time PCR. I Representative images showing Iba-1 immunofluorescence staining in sham and surgical DMM-induced mouse brain tissues obtained from WT and TG mice. J Iba-1-positive cell counts. K Area of Iba-1-positive cells in TG mice (at least 16 images/group). L GFAP protein expression in brain tissues was measured using Western blot analysis. Band intensities were normalized to GAPDH. M Fold changes in GFAP expression per WT sham control. Values are presented as mean ± SEM (n = 4/group). One-way ANOVA with Tuckey test was used. ***P < 0.001 **P < 0.01 *P < 0.05 were considered as significant for comparisons; ns not significant